Dr Howard Gardener states that intelligence is not a
single entity that can be measured using IQ tests. He believes there
are many forms of intelligence, and that what we know, understand
and learn is achieved in different ways. Each person is born with a unique
blend of intelligence. We all have these intelligences; however some are
more developed than others so we do not use some as effectively.
Meta-cognition
Intelligence develops in stages. Teachers can modify the intelligence of
learners. Thinking can be taught, meta-cognition is learning
about learning and developing thinking skills.
Stages of the development of intelligence
Stimulation - The child encounters the
stimulus in every day experiences, thus helping the development of the
dominant intelligence.
Amplification - The child begins to
interact and become aware of their community, which develops the dominant
intelligence further.
Learning and Understanding - The developing
intelligence is refined through problem solving and structured
learning.
Transferring and Effecting - Skills and abilities
relevant to a given intelligence can be used in a variety of
context.
Gardener's vision for education
Matching - Adapting teaching
structure for different intelligences, making learning easier for pupils. This
will boost self-esteem and motivation.
Stretching - Develop
intelligences in children that may not be as developed as others, helping
pupils achieve their goals (vocational and academic).
Celebrating - Understand
that not everyone learns in the same way, and each child has a unique
blend of strengths and weaknesses and embrace their strengths.
Achievement improves when a child understands their own unique blend of
intelligence, strengths and weaknesses. This will provide the child with the
confidence to admit their weakness in order to develop it because they already
know where they excel.
An interesting clip featuring Dr Howard Gardner, which briefly explains multiple intelligences and looks at the 'eight' unique multiple intelligences that Dr Howard Gardner suggests in his theory.
Here are some revision notes of mine on Lev Vygotsky and his theory on cognitive development.
Cognitive Development
Vygotsky believed children actively construct their knowledge and understanding.
They learn through social interactions
Society provides tools for learning
Minds are shaped by cultural context
Language is very important in the process
Cultural tools are devices used by humans for mastering their thinking and problem solving, these tools are created by humans. They have been developed through social interactions rather than individual actions.
Dolya (2007)
Language
Language is learned through social interaction (like everything else), initially children use language to control others e.g. 'up', 'more', 'again'. As the child gets older they learn to control their own actions (running commentary). It becomes internalized as thought.
Vygotsky's theory
A child uses language to plan, guide, and monitor behaviour.
Language and thought initially develop separately, then merge together.
Vygotsky's theory differs from Piaget as Piaget believed the mind
models the external world and Vygotsky believed the external world models the mind. Piaget was a Constructivist whereas Vygotsky was a Social Constructivist.
Natural line - Development comes from within the child but only up until the age of 2.
Cultural line - After the age of 2 mental structures are heavily influenced by the 'cultural line'.
Internalizing information - Mental functions e.g. memory, concepts, voluntary attention, appear twice in a child's development, first between the child and an adult (socially) and then within the child (psychologically).
Reconstruction - Children encounter the same scenarios over and over again, each time dealing with them at a higher level and reconstructing them, therefore gaining more control.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
There are three areas, What the child knows, what the child does not know and the 'middle ground' (ZPD) where the child currently has cognitive conflict on their own, but with guidance from a skilled learner or an adult, the child is able to reach equilibrium. The Zone of Proximal Development puts emphasis on the 'teacher'.
Social constructivism and constructivism,Vygotsky Vs Piaget. References Sian Sanders (2013)
As I am currently revising for an exam, I thought I could post some notes I have been making about Memory.
We tend to remember the first thing we hear (Primary), and the last thing we hear (Recent). This is known as the Primacy-Recency effect.
We also remember things which are repeated (Repetition).
Lastly we remember the unusual.
Three types of memory:
Immediate Memory - This type of memory only holds information for a few seconds and passes it to your short term memory.
Short term or Working Memory - This can hold about 7 items at a time. If information is not rehearsed immediately it is forgotten in 30 seconds. It selects and rejects information to go into your long term memory.
Long term memory - This storage system holds millions of of pieces of data. You
have several long term memories, including visual memory for what you see,
an auditory memory for what you hear and a motor memory for what you do.
Long term memory includes:
Flashbulb memory - Dramatic or emotional moments.
Episodic memory - Life events.
There different strategies one can use to help remember information, such as:
Mnemonics - e.g. Never Eat Shredded Wheat.
Acronyms
Rote Memory - Saying it over and over again.
Jingles - e.g. I before E except after C.
Loci Method
Memory in childhood
Most people cant remember anything before the age of 3, this is calledinfant amnesia. As children get older, their working memory increasingly develops allowing more and more information to be stored to use later. As they get older, they are able to make sense of the world and develop knowledge which makes it easier to store and retrieve information by making connections.
Here is a video clip of Idriz Zogaj explaining how to become a 'Memory Master'.
Maria Montessori was born in Italy, 1870. In 1892 she became a medical student at the University of Rome. In 1906 Montessori was asked to look after children of migrant workers. Whilst the parents went to work, and the elder children attended school, the children aged three to six years old were left to roam the streets. Dr Montessori was invited to take charge of these children to stop any mischief they may get up to. She furnished the room with small desks and chairs rather than desks, and a selection of modified materials. "Montessori observed the children's reactions to their new environment without any pre-conceived ideas of what would happen. These observations provided opportunities to understand better the children and the materials themselves" (Isaacs, 2010, p.6).
In the book 'The Montessori Method', published in Rome in 1912. Montessori describes children as:
being capable of extended periods of concentration.
enjoying repetition and order.
revelling in the freedom of movement and choice.
enjoying purposeful activities (preferred work play).
self-motivated, displaying behaviours that did not require either punishments or rewards.
taking delight in silence and harmony of the environment.
possessing personal dignity and spontaneous self-discipline.
being capable of learning to read and write.
Montessori's work with these children lay the foundations for what we know today as the Montessori approach to education. The Montessori method of education has three key components:
the child
the favourable environment
the teacher
"The relationship between the child, teacher and environment continues to evolve and develop because it is based on observation of children" (Isaacs, 2010, p.9). It allows the child to dictate the learning, this isn't to say children choose to do whatever they please. Learning is guided by the 'directness' or 'governess', they can set up different work stations or lay out toys before the children attend class and then proceed to take a back seat approach and let the children dictate how they use the equipment to learn, often learning subconsciously.
The Curriculum
There are 6 key areas to the Montessori curriculum:
Practical. Such as pouring a drink, looking after the classroom and buttoning up their coats. These activities develop hand-eye coordination, gross and fine motor skills. Working within a team for activities also boosts self confidence and improves social skills.
Sensorial. Young children learn more through their senses. Montessori materials are used so that children can grasp abstract concepts such as big and small, light and heavy or long and short.
Mathematics.Number rods, spindle boxes and counters help children grasp the idea of numbers and counting. As well as carrying out tasks where they measure and pour, or grade big and small.
Language.In the Montessori classroom, children have freedom of speech and movement and this, to a great extent helps them in building language skills. The children also use equipment such as picture cards, sandpaper letters and having free access to the book shelf as well as singing songs, listening to stories and creating artwork.
Creativity.Children can express their creativity through activities such as painting and drawing, modelling, stories and songs.
Culture.Children learn about cultures, different people, and countries through various activities such as globe, puzzle maps and other activities.
This is a short video clip showing what it's like inside a Montessori Classroom.
"Getting outdoors gives children the opportunity to take part in activities that extend their knowledge, understanding and skills and which will lay the foundations for future learning through a combination of free and structured play. Children can experience the wonderment and excitement of the outdoor environment while establishing a healthy attitude towards an active outdoor lifestyle" (Filer 1998, p.5).
A recent report by King’s College Londonhighlighted the significant benefits of learning in the natural environment, including:
Better educational attainment.
Development of natural science skills and environmental awareness.
Improved health, social cohesion and attitudes to other children.
Better school staff morale.
Outdoor learning activities such as those that take place in school gardens, local parks, farm visits and residential centres, help make core subjects rich and relevant and get students excited about learning. Teachers also benefit from learning in the natural environment, becoming more enthusiastic about teaching bringing innovative teaching strategies to the classroom.
Forest Schools
The purpose of Forest schools are to encourage and inspire individuals of any age through positive outdoor experiences. Initially learning experiences take place within the schools grounds, to allow children to become comfortable learning outdoors in familiar surroundings. Forest school leaders allow the children to take control of learning. The children have an introductory session in the woodland, exploring the site establishing physical and behavioural boundaries. A well as safety procedures, hygiene and routines.
Once a group are established in the woodland and routines are set up the project develops through a child led approach with opportunities for projects being taken back to the indoor setting to be continued.
Activities
Forest Schools put a lot of emphasis on the learner-led approach. Each activity follows a theme, from 'The Romans' to simply 'exploring'. Activities can depend on teamwork and communication, which develops a child's confidence and social skills. Activities such as hide and seek, shelter building and lighting fires will enhance self-esteem as well as individual skills. Tools are used in Forest Schools in a traditional woodland manner and are introduced gradually with a structured safety base that the children become familiar with. The use of tools in the outdoor environment will develop both gross and fine motor skills.
Below is a clip looking into Stroud School and their outdoor learning. The clip was used to show 'prospective parents what happens during Forest School sessions and what sort of skills the children are acquiring'. I personally think outdoor learning is a key attribute for education, through out a child's development. From experience I know that it's not nice being stuck in the same classroom all day. Offering a change of scenery and allowing children (especially in early years) to go out and explore will keep the learner interested and result in them wanting to learn which is essential for development.
Below is a link to an article taking from The Guardian newspaper. Its suggests that learning outside the classroom builds children's confidence and can transform their relationships with teachers, and asks the question 'how can schools be encouraged to organise more outdoor activities?'.
·J, Filer (1998) Learning Through Play: Outdoor Play.
·Natural England. Outdoor Learning in the natural environment. Available internet: http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/enjoying/linkingpeople/learning/default.aspx
"Play is the medium through which young children learn about life in all its many aspects. They are continually investigating and exploring their ever-expanding world and trying to make sense of what they see, hear and feel. The School Curriculum and Assessment Authority (SCAA) recognises this fact and has placed great emphasis upon the need for practical and enjoyable activities in the Desirable outcomes for Children's Learning" (Leach, 1997. p.5).
Areas of play
Personal, social and emotional development involves helping children to develop a positive sense of themselves, and others; to form positive relationships and develop respect for others; to develop social skills and learn how to manage their feelings; to understand appropriate behaviour in groups; and to have confidence in their own abilities.
Physical development involves providing opportunities for young children to be active and interactive; and to develop their co-ordination, control, and movement. Children must also be helped to understand the importance of physical activity, and to make healthy choices in relation to food.
Communication and language development involves giving children opportunities to experience a rich language environment; to develop their confidence and skills in expressing themselves; and to speak and listen in a range of situations.
Specific areas
Literacy involves encouraging children to link sounds and letters and to begin to read and write. Children must be given access to a wide range of reading materials (books, poems, and other written materials) to ignite their interest.
Mathematics involves providing children with opportunities to develop and improve their skills in counting, understanding and using numbers, calculating simple addition and subtraction problems; and to describe shapes, spaces, and measures.
Understanding the world involves guiding children to make sense of their physical world and their community through opportunities to explore, observe and find out about people, places, technology and the environment.
Expressive arts and design involves enabling children to explore and play with a wide range of media and materials, as well as providing opportunities and encouragement for sharing their thoughts, ideas and feelings through a variety of activities in art, music, movement, dance, role-play, and design and technology.
In my opinion I believe play is essential for a child's cognitive development in early years. Play allows the child to use his or her's imagination to explore different concepts. It allows children to develop in a number of areas (which are listed above). A child needs to be engaged to learn. A main factors for learning, is motivation, if a child is engaged in learning, and feels what they are doing has personal meaning then they will always want to learn. If a child isn't interested in what's being taught then its very difficult to stay engaged and stay motivated to achieve equilibrium. Heald (1997) suggests this does not mean leaving a child alone to play while the adults do something else, but means offering children a variety of experiences which enable them to find out for themselves the way things work.
Below is a video clip I found on YouTube. The clip shows learning through play from a child's perspective. It explains why play is important, and ask's the children what they think of play.
Reference List
B, Leach (1997) Learning Through Play: Small World Play.
C, Heald (1997) Learning Through Play: Construction Play, page 5.
Pre-school learning alliance (2013) Learning through play. Available internet:
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